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1.1 Cell Structure
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1)
2)
3)
Plant and Animal cells (eukaryotic cells)
Eukaryotic cells have these features:
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Genetic
material within
a nucleus
Typical size of animal cell =
10-30μmTypical size of plant cell =
10-100μm
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Bacteria (prokaryotic) cells
Consider a bacteria cell in more detail:
Bacteria contain cytoplasm and a
______ surrounded by a cell wall.
The ______ are NOT in a distinct
_____ and bacterial cells do not
have mitochondria or chloroplasts.
They may have one or more small
rings of DNA called _______.
Words –nucleus, membrane,
plasmids, genes Typical size of bacterial
cell = 2μm
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4)
1)
5)
3)
A Typical Animal Cell
Ribosomes –protein
synthesis happens
here
Mitochondria -
energy is released
here during
aerobic respiration
Cell Membrane –
controls what
comes in and out
Cytoplasm - this is
where the reactions
happen and these are
controlled by enzymes
2) Nucleus –
controls the
cell’s activities
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A Typical Plant Cell:
Cell wall –made
of cellulose which
strengthens the cell
Cell membrane
–controls what
comes in and out
Nucleus –controls
what the cell does and
stores information
Large vacuole –
contains sap and
helps support the
cell Cytoplasm –
Chemical reactions
happen here
Chloroplasts (containing
chlorophyll) –this is needed
for photosynthesis
Plant and Animal Cells compared
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Things in
plant cells Things in
animal cells
Summary 22/04/2026
Plant cells Animal cells Bacteria
Nucleus?
Cell membrane?
Mitochondria?
Chloroplasts?
Ribosomes?
Vacuole?
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Specialised animal cells
Red Blood Cell
Carries oxygen around the
body
No nucleus and large
surface area
I.D:
Function:
Features:
White blood cell
Egg cell (ovum)
Ciliated
epithelial cell
Nerve cell
(neurone)
Can you complete a similar description for these cells?
Design the following cells…
•A cell that would carry out a large number of chemical
reactions
•A cell that would be capable of absorbing large amounts of
water
•A cell that could line the windpipe and catch dust/germs
•A cell that would be good at photosynthesis
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Xylem and Phloem
Xylem are used by the plant
to transport water and
soluble mineral salts from
the roots to the stem and
the leaves.
Phloem are tubes used by
the plant to transport
dissolved food to the whole
plant for respiration and
storage.
Xylem and phloem are specialised plant cells:
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Cell differentiation
White blood cell
Egg cell (ovum)
Ciliated
epithelial cell
Nerve cell
(neurone)
During the development of
a multi-celled organism
cells differentiate to
form specialised cells.
They do this by acquiring
different sub-cellular
structures:
Animal cells differentiate
at an early stage whereas
plant cells retain the
ability to specialise
throughout their life.
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Microscopy
An old
microscope!
A “stereo”
microscope
These microscopes have
different powers of
magnification. Consider this
image of velcro:
If the “loop” on this image is measured to be 20cm
tall at a magnification of 100x how big is it really? 2mm
Scanning Electron Microscopes
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Scanning Electron Microscopes have
much higher magnification powers than
light microscopes. This has led to a
much greater understanding of cell
structure.
An electron microscope
image of a maggot…
Notice the resolution of this image
of me. The high levels of resolution
also make electron microscopes very
useful. Now I’m going to eat you.
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Growing Bacteria (Biology only)
Bacteria can grow and multiply at very quick rates, especially inside the
human body where the conditions are right. They grow through an asexual
process called “binary fission”.
Imagine bacteria could double every 20 minutes. Draw a graph of how
many you would have at the following times:
Time No. of bacteria
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
1
2
No of
bacteria
Time
The “right conditions” mentioned here
are the right temperature and the
presence of nutrients
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Growing Bacteria (Biology only)
1) Sterilise the
inoculating loop
2) Dip the loop in the
bacteria and spread it
across the agar
3) Secure (but don’t
seal) the lid with tape
and store upside down.
Questions:
1) Why are you sterilising the petri dish and the loop?
2) What does the agar do?
3) Why is the lid not sealed all the way around?
4) Why is the dish stored upside down?
5) Why would you not want to culture your bacteria at 37OC?
1.2 Cell Division 22/04/2026
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Cells, Genes and Chromosomes
The nucleus of a cell contains
chromosomes made of DNA
molecules. Each chromosome
carries a large number of
genes and chromosomes are
often found in pairs.
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Cell Growth - Mitosis
Each daughter cell has
the same number of
chromosomes and
genetic information as
the parent –in other
words, we’ve “grown” a
new cell.
Mitosis is basically: 1) Copy the DNA, 2) Divide it into two:
Before this division the cell would need to increase the
number of sub-cellular structures such as ribosomes.
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Facts about Mitosis
Mitosis:
1. Used for _____ and _____ of
cells
2. Used in _______ reproduction
3. Cells with identical number of
_______ and genetic
information are produced
(“________”)
Words –clones, asexual, growth, chromosomes, repair
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Stem Cells
A while ago we considered examples of specialised cells:
White blood cell
Egg cell (ovum)
Ciliated
epithelial cell
Nerve cell
(neurone)
A “stem cell” is a cell that hasn’t yet become specialised and
can be found in embryos or bone marrow. These cells can be
used to treat certain conditions but the use of these cells is
very controversial.
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Stem cell research
Stem cells are cells that have not yet specialised:
Egg and
sperm
Embryo
Cloned
embryos
These stem cells have the
potential to develop into
any kind of cell. In grown
adults they can be taken
from bone marrow or
they can come from
embryos from unused IVF
treatments. They can be
used to treat conditions
such as diabetes and
paralysis.
The ethical issue:
Should these embryos be treated as humans?
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Making decisions
Some questions cannot be answered by science and need to be
considered on ethical grounds.
Factors that might influence a decision:
•Beliefs/religion
• What does “the right thing” mean?
• “Playing God”
•Risks –acceptable or unacceptable?
•Social and economic contexts
More about Stem Cell Research
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I could benefit from stem cell research but
doctors are worried that my body will reject
the treatment. What’s a possible solution?
“Therapeutic cloning” may
be the answer. We’ll
produce an embryo with
the same genes as you.
Not sure
how I feel
about that…
Stem cell research does also carry the risk of
transmitting viral infections.
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Stem Cells in Plants - Meristems
Plant growth occurs in areas called meristems. Stem cells can
come from meristems.
e.g. this meristem causes
the plant to grow upwards.
Cells from the meristem behave like
stem cells –they can develop into any
kind of cell. Cloned plants can be
produced from these cells. What are
the advantages of this?
1) Food production?
2) Rare plants?
1.3 Transport in Cells 22/04/2026
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Diffusion
Diffusion is when something travels from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration. For example,
consider the scent from a hamburger…
The “scent particles” from
this hamburger are in high
concentration here:
Eventually they will
“diffuse” out into this area
of low concentration:
Substances can move across a cell
membrane by diffusion.
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Diffusion Summary
Diffusion is when particles spread from an area of high
concentration to an area of ___ concentration. The particles
move along a “concentration _____”. Diffusion can be
accelerated by increasing the _______ of the particles, which
makes them move _______, or by making the surface area of
the membrane _______.
Words –faster, low, gradient, temperature, bigger
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An example of Diffusion: the lungs
Oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuses out of blood in
the lungs:
O2
CO2
Diffusion also occurs in cells –urea diffuses out of cells into
blood plasma for excretion in the kidney.
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Single celled organisms
Here’s a picture of an amoeba, a single-celled organism.
The amoeba has a large
surface area to volume
ratio. How does this help
diffusion?
What about a larger
organism that doesn’t have
such a high surface area to
volume ratio? Let’s
consider a fish…
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Gas Exchange in Fish
3) The oxygen is transported away from
the gill filaments by the blood supply.
1) The fish gulps water
through its mouth and then
pushes it out of the gill flap
2) The oxygen is
absorbed by the fine
filaments (which increase
surface area) in the gills
Notice the large
surface area and
good blood supply
in the gills!
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Diffusion in the lungs
As we’ve said before, oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide
diffuses out of blood in the lungs:
O2
CO2
Alveoli have four things that help them to do this job:
1) A massive surface area
2) A lining that is only one cell thick
3) A very good blood supply
4) Ventilation.
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Osmosis
Osmosis is a “special kind of ___________”. It’s when water
diffuses from a __________ area to a less concentrated area
through a partially permeable _________ (i.e. one that allows
water to move through but not anything else):
Water Sugar solution In this example the water
molecules will move from
left to right (along the
concentration ______) and
gradually _____ the sugar
solution.
Words –membrane, concentrated, dilute, diffusion, gradient
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Strong
sugar
solution
Medium
sugar
solution
Weak
sugar
solution
Potato cells
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Active Transport
In diffusion substances moved along a concentration gradient.
In active transport, substances move against this gradient:
Outside cell Inside cell
This process takes ______ and
this comes from ___________.
It enables cells to take in
substances even though there
are in very small __________.
Root hair cells take in ______
using active transport.
Cell membrane Words –concentration, energy,
respiration, nutrients
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Plant roots are made of specialised “root hair cells” which have
two features that help them to take in water and nutrients:
Root hair cells
Root
hair
cells
Thin cell membrane
Large surface area
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Active Transport in plants and humans
More concentrated
Less
concentrated
Mineral
Plant nutrients are taken
in by root hair cells using
active transport.
Sugar molecules are
absorbed from the gut
into blood by active
transport.
Comparing Diffusion, Osmosis and
Active Transport
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Diffusion Osmosis
Active transport
